In 1848 a revolution in France, again became the focus of a European-wide uprising. Louis-Philippe was ousted in favour of a second French Republic. All over Europe monarchs began to panic. Liberal constitutions were adopted in many countries to avert revolution. Movements for German and Italian unity emerged. The Germans briefly restored their Empire. A regent, John of Austria, brother of the last Holy Roman Emperor, was briefly in office.

The extent of Austria’s territory became a big problem where German reunification was concerned. Large non-German territories would be included in the new Empire. Austria would either have to give up its non-German territories, or stay out of a unified Empire. A Hungarian uprising was quashed with Russian help. Parliament in Frankfurt elected to adopt a small-German solution, and offered the Imperial throne to the conservative King of Prussia, who refused to take a liberal revolutionary crown, thus destroying the momentum of the revolution in Germany. With Austria saved by the Russians, champions of the reaction, and counter revolution in Germany, the European-wide revolution came to a halt. What remained was a new Republic in France and liberal constitutions in some countries. What also remained was the resentment of those whose causes had failed. These were not only liberal reformers but notably also, peoples without a national state of their own. Some like the Poles and the Hungarians who were ruled by larger Empires, and some whose countries were divided between many little states, like the Italians and the Germans.